And its Impact on Cheranadu
I am not sure who coined the
term interregnum in association with the Kalabhras, but it has been used for
many decades. For those who do not want to open a dictionary, it means a period
when normal government is suspended, especially between successive reigns or
regimes. They seem to have ruled over swathes of South India that had been
under Pandya, Chola, and Chera rule. It is vaguely defined as a period between
the 3rd and 6th centuries. I was not quite aware of a period when the Chera
rule was interrupted by the Kalabhras, though some historians have alluded to
it here and there. Let's take a look at what it was all about and whether such
a period had any impact on Cheranadu, this side of the ghats.
In general, this period is
considered to be the time when roving conquerors from the Nandi region in
Karnataka overthrew the Pandya and Chola regimes in Tamilakam, perhaps also the
Kongu and East Coast Cheras to some extent, and established control here and
there, off and on, for a good number of years. There has been much debate about
the duration of their rule, which ranges from a few decades to three centuries.
This interregnum is described as one characterized by the dominance of Buddhism
and Jainism. At the same time, some historians view it as a period in which
peasants revolted against the Brahmin hierarchy entrenched in these lands.
However, even though new rulers took over in Puhar and Madurai, no mention of
them appears in the epics, for example, Cilappatikaram and Manimekhalai, which
were penned during or after this period. Due to this lack of specific
information, this period was therefore considered a dark period.
Mysteriously, these
marauders vanished as stealthily as they had come, leaving no traces of their
rule, or so they say. The period they ruled is thus defined as the interregnum,
between the good times. The Bhakti period, as well as the anti-sramana period,
commenced after their departure, and, slowly, the Jain and Buddhist viharas and
stupas were torn down and replaced or reoccupied by Siva and Vishnu temples.
The Pallavas took over from the Kalabhras at the end of the 6th century. Later
dynasties often depicted the Kalabhras as external threats or usurpers, perhaps
to legitimize their own return to centralized power and the orthodox
Brahmanical order.
Mysterious – unclear
identity
Venkata Raman tries to shed
some light on the issue: He says, "Dislodged from the region of
Sravanabelagola, the tribe named Kalbhora seems to have moved eastward and
settled in the region comprising the modern districts of Bangalore, Kolar, and
Chittoor." The regional names Kalavaranadu and Kalinadu persisted for
quite a while, and based on a verse in praise of Aeliyuta, a Kalabhra King,
Mahavidwan M. Raghava Iyengar suggested that the Kalabhras must have come from
the Nandi Hills in Kolar district, a suggestion supported by later-discovered
inscriptions.
Dislodged by the Kadambas
from their earlier home around Sravanabelagola, they moved east. They carved
out a kingdom that included Bangalore, Kolar, and parts of the Chittoor
district, which came to be called Kalmad, or Kalavarnad, after them. From
there, they spread out into Tondainad, Cholanad, and Pandyanad. They occupied
Madurai for a while sometime after the reign of Mudukudumi. It is still assumed
that more than one family of Kalabhras ruled over parts of Tamilakam.
The Chalukyas' references to
the Kalabhras highlight the complexity of Tamilakam's regional dynamics, in
which alliances were often fluid and political affiliations could shift with
circumstances. This fluidity is a hallmark of South Indian political
organization, in which decentralized powers such as the Kalabhras coexisted
with or challenged more centralized dynasties through adaptive, locally
embedded governance structures.
Evidence
Inscriptions
It begins with an invocation
to Lord Siva, then the greatness of the Pandyas, and explains the grant of land
to one Jatilavarman. He and his descendants possessed and enjoyed the land for
a long time. Then a conceited (cruel) ruler named Kalabhra seized the land,
driving away numberless Pandyan princes (which could mean an extended battle
over generations) and taking control of Velvikudi, the village gifted above.
The complaint added that the Kalabhras subdued the land with an unflinching
vast army. The Pandya Raja, named Kadumkon, appeared like the sun rising from
the vast sea; he was the Tennavan with the brilliant Spear, whose army
destroyed the Kalabhra enemies.
K Veluthat remains
unconvinced and adds: "I believe that this official record has invented
such a Kalabhra interregnum, so vividly described, to legitimize a donation to
Brahmins of a probably disputed piece of land."
There are some vague
references in certain Tamil works. The Madras Gazetteer states: "The
evidence of epigraphy to the effect that they definitely occupied the Pandya
country and drove out its native rulers receives corroboration in a curious
form from the Tamil Periya Puranam." Madura, it is stated, was invaded and
occupied by the king of Karnata during the time of the Saiva devotee, Murti Nayanar,
whose date is about the seventh century AD; the Karnata king became a Jaina and
persecuted the Saivas at Madura. He died without issue, and the choice of
succession was left to an elephant, which was let loose for the purpose. The
elephant picked up Murti Nayanar, and he accordingly became king of Madura. The
story is referred to in the Kalladam, an old Tamil work, and may be taken to
relate to the Kalabhras' temporary occupation of Madura.
Coins
Aside from sporadic
inscriptions, Galapra coins are said to be linked to these rulers. One such
coin was recovered from the bed of the Amaravathi River near Karur in 1986.
Krishnamurthy, who found it, states: "It looks similar to the Roman bronze
coin of the third century AD." On going through a Roman Coin catalogue, I
found a coin similar in diameter and weight. The Galapra coin die might have
been designed and made by Roman coin die-makers. He further said that the Galapra
coin had four symbols on the top-right of the obverse, near the border, which
are usually seen on Sangam Age Tamil coins. "So, the coin may have been minted
at the tail end of the Sangam Age.
Impact
Arunachalam explains: They
were not a remnant of the Satavahana power, which had spread throughout
Tamilakam. They had nothing to do with the Gangas or with any Kalikula. They
were not descended from Pulli, nor were they Vaduhar. Their place of origin was
not Venkatam or Erumainadu in particular, but only the area around Sravanabelagola,
the center of origin of Southern Jainism after Bhadrabahu and the legendary
Chandragupta. They were not a royal dynasty but only a predatory tribe that
used Prakrit-Kannada and launched a three-pronged attack on the entire
Tamilakam - on Madurai, on Puhar, and on Kanchi - and succeeded. They were not,
of course, Tamils. The Kalabhras did not bring about the extinction of the Pandyas,
but drove them away from Madurai. The Kalabhras did not occupy the entire
territory formerly ruled by the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. The Pandyas were
dislodged from their rulership at Madurai, and the Cholas were dislodged from
their overlordship at Kaverippattinam (Puhar).
The Pandyas were finally
able to assert themselves and vanquish the Kalabhras at Madurai by the end of
the 6th century, while in other places the Cholas came to power only later, in
the middle of the 9th century; here again the Kalabhras had disappeared, and a
new clan known to history as the Muttaraiyar was having sway over some parts of
the Cholanad.
Language, religion
Kalabhra appears in both the
Pandya and Pallava inscriptions written in the Grantha script (Sanskrit), but
the name is unknown in Sanskrit. The language of the Kalabhras is known to have
been Prakrit and Pali, possibly also early Kannada. They were followers of
Jainism in some places and of Buddhism in others. Hence, they are considered
aliens on Tamil soil. The language of the Kalabhras would have been Prakrit (or
Pali) and a primitive form of Kannada, and their religion was the Digambara
sect of Jainism.
Literature
The Chilappatikaram, an
early Tamil epic written by Ilanko Atikaḷ, a prince who became a Jain monk, was
probably composed in the 5th century CE at Kodungallur, near Muziris. A legend
that he was the brother of a Chera king named Cenkuttuvan, tentatively dated to
100–250 CE, is used to date the text to that period. Daniélou, its translator,
states that the epic – along with the other four Tamil epics – was composed
sometime between the latter part of the Sangam and the subsequent centuries,
that is, "3rd to 7th-century." Iravatham Mahadevan states that the mention
of a weekday (Friday) in the text and the negative portrayal of a Pandya king
narrows the probable date of composition to between 450 and 550 CE. Taken
together, these factors place the epic's composition during the Kalabhra
interregnum.
Other works, such as the
Tirukkural and Tolkappiyam, were also written by Jains much earlier in the
Sangam period. In contrast, the Manimekhalai, a text dated after the
Silappadhikaram, was written by Satanar, a Buddhist, between the 4th and 6th
centuries or even later. Though there is some debate about Tiruvalluvar's
religion, there is also doubt about whether a Jain Kunda Kunda Acharya authored
it.
Nilakanta Sastri noted that the
evil rulers, the Kalabhras, disrupted the established order. It was a dark
period marked by the ascendancy of Buddhism, probably also of Jainism, and
characterized by great literary activity in Tamil, as many of the authors were
votaries of the 'heretical' sects. Emmerich highlights the paradox: in this
highly dramatic and ambivalent narrative, the Jains find themselves in the
awkward position of being responsible for "great literary activity"
that was, however, enabled by an "enemy of civilization."
Criticism, doubts
Valerie Gillet refutes the
link between Roman trade and the Kalabhra interregnum: It has long been
believed that trade with Mediterranean countries ended after the third century
AD, coinciding with the start of the 'Dark Period'. The period up to the third
century AD appears to have been a flourishing era for trade and contact with
Western nations. If the decline in trade with this part of the world is real,
it does not necessarily imply that a 'Dark Period' has begun in South India; it
may instead reflect a decline or crisis in the Roman Empire.
In his book, BGL Swamy
rejects all the arguments advanced by earlier historians and concludes that it
was a temporary occupation of Pandya land by the Gangas and had nothing to do
with pulling the shutters down on the Sangam age, if such an age existed at
all.
Veluthat adds:
"Actually, the Kalabhra episode is based on weak evidence, but that is
enough for the construct of an invasion." The Kalabhra episode, as such,
hardly explains anything, for a predatory march would not be enough to usher in
major socio-invasion and political changes. Elsewhere, he states - Nothing,
however, in the scanty evidence of Kalabhra presence in the sources of doubtful
authenticity supports this picture of a "long period" of armed
struggle between the peasants and non-peasants in which the latter, represented
by the Kalabhras, ultimately emerged successful. Historians have not quite
given up the chase for this Loch Ness Monster.
Manu D agrees that the
extant evidence, which is hardly substantial, does not tell us what the
Kalabhra marches accomplished that the recurrent and often destructive raids of
the Tamil chieftains couldn't. He emphasizes that the Kalabhra thesis is at
best a myth, and the historian's quest for the Kalabhra interregnum is rightly
likened to chasing the Loch Ness Monster.
Charles Allen, though not
convinced, also clarifies that there now appears to be a growing body of
opinion arguing that there was no Kalabhra dark age. However, there may have
been a period of turmoil, kalavaram, meaning turmoil in Tamil.
Chera links
According to Nagaswamy, the
ancient Chera kingdom stretched from Muziris in the West to Karur in the East.
Karur (or Karuvur), near Trichy, served as the early capital and inland power
center for the Chera dynasty during the Sangam age. As the eastern portions of
the ancient Chera country gradually came under the Pandya sphere of influence,
the western portion evolved into an independent kingdom with its headquarters
at Mahodayapuram-Kodungallur (around the 9th century AD).
The Kalabhras' influence
extended to Kongunadu, a fertile region historically ruled by the Chera kings
of the Irumporai lineage during the Sangam period. Following the decline of
Chera power, Kongunadu underwent a series of political transitions, with the
Atiya rulers regaining prominence before the Kalabhras' incursions. The
Kongunadu inscriptions record the origins and transformations of the Kongu
rulers and their connections with the Kalabhras. Soon after, the region was
occupied, and administrative reforms were implemented, including village-level
governance led by chiefs known as Nattu-Kamindan. These reforms laid the
groundwork for subsequent political structures in the region. The coordinated
efforts of the Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cheras played a crucial role in the
Kalabhras' downfall. Pallava rulers such as Simhavishnu and Pandya kings such
as Kadungon are credited with overthrowing the Kalabhras and restoring
traditional Tamil dynasties. The Kongu Cheras near Coimbatore were later
absorbed into the Pandya political system.
In Kongunadu, the Kalabhras'
rule left a lasting imprint on administrative and social structures. The
Kalabhras are credited with introducing village governance systems that later
evolved into Palayams under the Nayaks of Madurai. These systems divided the
region into smaller administrative units, each governed by a local chief. The
Kalabhras' patronage of Jainism also contributed to the proliferation of Jain
centers in Kongunadu, many of which remained significant religious sites for
centuries. Despite their contributions to administration and religion, the
Kalabhras' suppression of Tamil traditions created a cultural void that was
filled by the resurgence of Saivism and Vaishnavism under subsequent rulers.
The migration from the East
to the new seat of the Cheras at Vanchi near Kodungallur on the West Coast was
due to the ascendance of the Pallavas in the 7th–8th centuries, according to R
Nagaswamy. However, other historians connect the move or flight to the Kalabhara
conquests on the East Coast, placing it a little earlier.
A. Aiyappan, the eminent
anthropologist discussing the Chera capital of Vanchi, argues that the Cheras
were dislodged from Karuvur by the Kalabhras and shifted their capital to the
west coast, preserving the old names Vanchi and Karuvur, circa the 4th century
AD. He maintains that this is why locals in Malayalam always considered these
Cheras foreigners, because of their personal and domestic laws, patrilineal
systems, being the first among the Kshatriyas, and being the first to be crowned
kings. They were the suzerains of several local chieftains, including the
Eralanadu utayavan, from the beginning. In the same book, discussing the
antiquity of Malayalam, he, after consulting M Arunachalam, explains that Royal
Chera inscriptions in Kerala were mostly in Sen Tamil, as spoken by the elites.
In contrast, the spoken language of the ancient Kerala folk was Kodum Tamil.
This proves that these Chera rulers were foreigners from the East Coast, that
the use of Sen Tamil quickly declined, and that a mixture of Kodum Tamil and
Prakrit went on to form early Malayalam circa the 10th century.
KK Pillay concludes his
paper on Nayars & Marumakkatayam by connecting it to the Kalabhra. It is
difficult to determine when Marumakkatayam first appeared in North Kerala. It
likely emerged there soon after the advent of the Nambudiris. The prevalence of
Marumakkatayam among the Nambudiris of Payyanur, along with the significant
fact that the Aliyasantanam institution of Kanara is akin to Marumakkatayam,
suggests that the Nambudiris arrived in Malabar via Kanara, probably after a
stay there. Even today, the customs and manners of the Porri (Potti) residing
in South Kanara are in many respects similar to those of the Nambudiris.
Perhaps the Nambudiris were
displaced by external forces. If a suggestion may be ventured, this movement
might have been prompted by the Kalabhra invasions and the resulting
insecurity. If this were true, which is highly probable, the advent of
Nambudiris to North Kerala may be dated to roughly the 5th to the 7th century AD,
and Marumakkattayam might have been introduced among the Nayars in North Kerala
shortly after their arrival and settlement there.
However, I am not too sure
about this. I will get back to the Marumakkatayam topic some other day.
I am sure the Kalabhras will
continue to hold people's attention for some time, and new theories and
discoveries will keep the search for answers going… just as the Loch Ness
monster myth has, as Veluthat likened it.
References
The Kalabhras in the Pandya
country and their impact on the life and letters there – M Arunachalam
The Ins and Outs of the
Jains in Tamil Literary Histories Christoph Emmrich
Kalabhra Interregnum – A
retrospect and a prospect – B G L Swamy
A Note on the Kalabhras - K.
R. Venketa Raman, JOIH 1956, vol 34
The Dark Period: Myth or
reality? Valérie Gillet
From the Cult of Chivalry to
the Cult of Personality: The Seventh-century Transformation in Pallava Statecraft
- Manu V. Devadevan
Karur Vanchi – The capital
of Sangam Cheras – R Nagaswamy
The origin and development
of the matriarchal system in Kerala, Dr. K. K. Pillay - Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress, 1954